Piltdown Hoax

            In 1912 near the village of Piltdown located in southeast England, an amateur geologist, Charles Dawson, discovered skull fragments that he believed was from a human ancestor.  Renowned English geologist Sir Arthur Smith Woodward from the Natural History Museum in London joined Dawson on his dig and hoped to discover more fossils during the summer dig.  They found Stone Age tools, animal fossils, and an ape-like jawbone with teeth similar to human teeth.  This was a huge discovery as it connected humans with apes which supported Charles Darwin’s theory. This discovery came at a time when British scientists were desperate to find evidence to support Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.  Germany and France scientists had already discovered fossil ancestors and British scientists were eager to do the same. Sir Arthur Keith, England’s leading anatomist embraced this discovery as it validated his theory of human evolution. He believed that early humans developed big brains before they walked upright.  Scientists now know that the opposite is true. Humans developed big brains after walking upright.

            The Piltdown Man was believed to be about 1 million year old which made it the oldest human ancestor thus far discovered.  In December 1912 at the Royal Geological Society, Woodward made their first public announcement of their discovery.  Paleo-anthropologists worldwide were enthusiastic about this discovery.  The news of Piltdown Man spread around the world from Europe to America, Africa and even to Australia.  Some experts had their doubts that the jawbone and skull were from the same creature.  The articulation bone was broken off so there was no way to see if the jawbone was a true match to the skull.  Over the next couple years Dawson and Woodward made more discoveries including a canine tooth, skull pieces, and another molar tooth.  These findings silenced the skeptics, at least publically.

            During the 1920s and 1930s ancient remains were discovered but these fossils did not align with the Piltdown Man. In 1924, Raymond Dart discovered a skull of an ape-man but its brain was smaller in comparison to the Piltdown so British scientists were not convinced that it was a human ancestor.  

            In the 1940s new technology was developed for dating fossils and in 1949 the Piltdown fossils were tested using the fluorine analysis.  It was determined that the fossils were not 1 million years old but were about 100,000 years old.  In 1953, the Piltdown fossils were retested with better dating methods and a microscope and scientists proved that the jaw was from a female orangutan and was 100 years old.  It was also discovered the teeth were filed down and had been boiled and stained.

            The human faults that came into play during the Piltdown Hoax were the need and desperation of England to discover primitive humans in their country.  Other countries were making discoveries but England was not. This had a negative impact on the Piltdown process. In addition, the Natural History Museum allowed very few to examine the Piltdown fossils.  The fossils were not subjected to a wide study and had they been, I believe the hoax would have been exposed much earlier. 

 

            Today we have new processes for dating fossils which includes fluorine analysis and various chronometric techniques based on radioactive decay. Potassium-40 is widely used by paleoanthropologists to data fossils in the 1 to 5 million year range. Scientists today have numerous tools and tests available but the human factor is still used in the interruption of the tests results and the human factor is used to theorize.

             The fossils that were discovered that did not align with the Piltdown Man should have been examined more thoroughly. However, anything that contradicted the Piltdown fossils at that time were under high scrutiny and dismissed.  A lesson learned from this historical event is that the evidence should be examined by multiple sources even when the discovery is made by someone that is highly respected. The evidence should be studied and analyzed by a group of peers before being dismissed.

 

 

Week 4

Lemurs are found on the island of Madagascar and the Comoro Islands which are located about 250 miles off the Southeast coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean.  The climate of this area ranges from tropical to arid. Lemurs live in all areas of these islands and adapt to their environment but you can find more lemurs in the forests as more food is available.  They live in trees and eat a variety of food for survival.  They mostly eat nuts and fruit but they also eat flowers, sap, tree bark and flowers. Lemurs spend much of their time in the trees but do spend time on the ground as well. 

The dentition pattern of Lemurs is 2-1-3-3 (incisors, canine, premolars, molars). Their incisors and canines are procumbent (face forward) which provides a tool for grooming or feeding such as removing large seeds from fruits.  Their teeth can also cut through bark which enables them to eat the sap.  Their teeth have adapted to the current state so that they can crush seeds and cut through bark.

 

 Spider Monkey

Spider monkeys live in the rain forests of Central and South America and some also live in Mexico.  The spider monkeys look for areas that offer a protective canopy of trees.  Spider Monkeys play a very important role in their habitat as they spread seeds from fruits, plants and flowers which help new vegetation grow.  They forage for their food high in the trees (80 feet – 100 feet high) and they mainly eat fruits but will also eat nuts, bird eggs, spiders, and leaves which they find in the treetops.   

 

The dentition pattern of a spider monkey is 2-1-3-3.  Their sharp teeth help them bite through the hard seeds.

Baboon

Baboons live in Africa and Arabia.  Most of them live in semi-arid environments and tropical forests. They need to live near a water source and seek the protection of tall trees or the cliff faces.  They spend most of their time on the ground but do climb trees to eat and sheep.  They eat fruit, seeds, bark, grass, roots, birds, sheep and even antelopes.

They have very long canine teeth and strong jaws which allow them to be a predator and eat other animals such as sheep.  The dentition pattern of a baboon is 2-1-2-3.

 

 
Gibbon

Gibbons are found in the rain forests of southern Asia. They spend almost all of their lives in the treetops and rarely descend to the ground.  They mostly eat fruit but will eat leaves, insects, tree bark and flowers.  They will sometimes eat birds, bird eggs, tree frogs and insects.

The dentition pattern of a gibbon is 2-1-2-3. They large canine teeth help them rip bark from the trees.

 

Chimpanzee

Chimpanzees live mostly in rain forests but some live in wet savannas of Uganda and Tanzania. Chimpanzees spend their time in trees and on land. They sleep in trees and also scavenge for food in the trees.  The diet of chimpanzees consists of fruit, seeds, insects, and eggs and they will kill and eat birds and even antelope.    

The dentition pattern of a chimpanzee is 2-1-2-3.  Chimpanzees have 32 adult teeth which are the same number as humans.  The upper jaw of chimps is u-shaped.  Their canine teeth are large and pointed.  Chimpanzees don’t need the large canine teeth to eat fruit and leaves but these large teeth could also be used as a threat against enemies.

 

Summary:

Lemurs and spider monkeys share the same pattern of 2-1-3-3.  They have sharp canine teeth due to their diet of mostly bugs.  They are arboreal and over the course of evolution these primates have adapted their diet.

 

Baboons, gibbons, and chimpanzees share the pattern of 2-1-2-3. They eat a variety food including small animals so their large canines allow them to tear their food.  These large canines are very visible and could also be used for intimidation against predators and their prey.  These primates are Omnivore (an animal that eats both plants and animals).  Over the course of evolution this led to the change in their dentition.

Week3

Homologous traits are those that are inherited from a common ancestor. 

 

Berkshire pigs and bobcats share the homologous trait of having four legs.  Berkshire pigs have firm bodies with short legs.  Berkshire pigs are black with white on their legs, face and tail.  Their dark skin keeps them from being sunburned. The Berkshire pigs are medium sized animals and weigh around 600 lbs.

 

Berkshire pigs were brought to the United States in 1823.   These pigs produce high quality meat and are known for its texture, tenderness and juiciness. 

 

Bobcats grow up to be about 41 inches long and weigh about 25 lbs.  They live about 12 years.  Bobcats are carnivores and eat small animals such as squirrels, birds, mice, and rabbits. They hunt deer, sheep, and even young pigs.

 

The Berkshire pig uses his four legs to stand and walk.  Pigs often have structural unsoundness of their legs which include buckling of the knees, bowed legs, swollen joints and general lack of freedom in movement. The Berkshire pig moves slowly in comparison to the bobcat. Bobcats use their legs to stand, walk, run, and balance themselves.  They are agile and climb well. They are also excellent swimmers and hunters.   The legs of the bobcat are long and lean which give them power for jumping and running.  Bobcats hunt for their food in comparison to pigs which are raised on farms and fed fresh vegetables. 

 

              

 

 

Both bobcats and pigs are mammals. They both are warm blooded vertebrate animals. They breathe air with their lungs.  Pigs are part of the biological family of suidae (hogs and pigs) and bobcats are from the biological family of felidae (cat family).

 

 

 

PART 2

 

Birds and butterflies share the analogous trait of wings.  Birds have two wings and in comparison butterflies have 4 wings (2 large and 2 small).  Although they both have wings they are very different species.

 Butterflies are insects and have a head, thorax and abdomen.  They have 3 pairs of walking legs (6 jointed legs), an antennae, spherical compound eyes, and an exoskeleton. Each spherical compound eye comprise of 17,000 individual light receptors with their own microscopic lenses. Butterflies are anthropods.  Their exoskeleton is a shell-like skin to protect their internal organ but it does not grow.  Occasionally it must be shed.

 Birds on the other have two legs, a beak, and four color receptors in their eyes so they can see ultraviolet light.  The body of birds are covered with feathers. Birds have an internal skeleton with bones such as ribs, a skull, and femur.

The evolution of birds is thought to have begun during the Jurassic Period from a clade of theropoda and butterflies/insects appeared on Earth about 300 million years ago and evolved from Trichoptera.  It is thought that the butterfly and the bird’s common ancestor is a reptile which did not have wings.

 

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